Language training led to persistently higher wages and employment of treated refugees after the program. Effect emerged after completion of language classes and was accompanied by additional schooling and higher probability of working in communication-intensive jobs, suggesting that language training, rather than other minor aspects of the reform, produced it. Spillover effect on higher school completion and lower probability of crime for male children with both parents exposed to the reform.

Couples are more likely to migrate if household earnings potential is disproportionally due to one partner, and families react equally strongly to a male and a female relative advantage in educational earnings potential.

Inflow of refugee-country immigrants pushed less educated native workers to pursue less manual-intensive occupations. As a result wages and employment improved.